| The medical center, named in honor of Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U.S. Army |
|
|
| Major Walter Reed Born in Virginia |
|
On September 13, 1851, one of the world's outstanding physicians and medical
research scientists was born in Belroi, Gloucester County, Virginia, the son
of a Methodist minister, Lemuel Sutton Reed, and his wife, Pharaba White
Reed. At an early age, Walter Reed gave "evidence of the intellectual
brilliancy and earnestness of purpose which distinguished him in later years."
|
|
|
Reed Enjoys Early Academic Success
|
|
After his basic education at a private school in Charlottesville, Virginia,
Walter Reed matriculated at the famed University of Virginia where he
completed the two-year medical course in only one year and received
his degree in 1869 at the age of seventeen. He remains the youngest
student ever to graduate from the medical school. Since the University
of Virginia had no hospital attached, he took a second degree at
Bellevue Hospital Medical College in New York in 1870.
|
|
|
|
Reed's Professional Traits Emerge
|
|
He competed for and won a position as assistant physician at Infants'
Hospital at Randall's Island. He served his internship at Kings County
Hospital in Brooklyn and also worked at the Brooklyn City Hospital.
While interning at Kings County he was described as being "sociable
and companionable with a special gift for conversation." After further
in hospital work at Brooklyn City Hospital with consultant status at
Kings County, he was appointed one of the five inspectors on the
Brooklyn Board of Health in 1873 at the age of twenty-two. He
approached all his duties with enthusiasm and optimism, traits
which contributed immeasurably to his success, both social and
professional.
|
|
|
Reed Meets His Future Wife, Receives Army Commission
|
|
The turmoil of city life excited and stimulated him. He attended
concerts at the Hippodrome and the Academy of Music and good
lectures on literature and scientific subjects. In 1874, having
served on the Boards of Health in Brooklyn and New York, he
traveled to North Carolina to visit his father who was living in
Murfreesboro. There he met his future wife, Emilie Lawrence, the
daughter of a North Carolina planter. His letters to her revealed
that he had decided to give up his civilian career and enter the
Army as a surgeon. Because he felt the Army offered a good opportunity
for travel, and also the financial security he felt he needed to
marry his winsome fiancée, he applied and was accepted for an
appointment in the Medical Department of the Army. Walter Reed
passed the required examinations and was appointed Assistant
Surgeon with the rank of first lieutenant on June 26, 1875.
|
|
|
|
Arizona to Baltimore to the Frontier to Alabama
|
|
So began for the young couple eighteen years of garrison life. After five
years at Fort Lowell and Fort Apache, Arizona, where he served as a beloved
family doctor visiting patients in the wild country surrounding his posts,
he was promoted to captain, on June 26, 1880, and soon thereafter was
transferred to Fort McHenry in Baltimore. In his spare time he became
a student of physiology at Johns Hopkins University during 1881 and 1882.
|
|
After serving at Fort McHenry, Walter Reed was again assigned to the western
frontier at Forts Omaha, Sidney and Robinson in Nebraska, and then to Mount
Vernon Barracks, Alabama. One Walter Reed historian points out "one of the
marvels of his life is that his relegation to frontier garrisons, unfavorable
for intellectual contacts, did not ruin him."
|
|
|
Medical Science Advances
|
|
It is significant that Walter Reed's career coincided with the great flowering
of medical science that took place in the 1880's. The germ theory of infectious
disease was now accepted as postulated and proved by Pasteur, and Robert Koch
had perfected a method for studying bacteria. In the United States, George
Miller Sternberg, later Army Surgeon General, with whom Walter Reed would
develop a close professional relationship, was one of the founders of
bacteriology.
|
|
|
Dr. Reed Furthers His Studies
|
|
Dr. Reed returned to Baltimore in 1890 as examiner of recruits. This
assignment was quite welcome since it provided him with the opportunity
for further study. He became a student of bacteriology and pathology
under the tutelage of Dr. William Henry Welch, head of the Pathological
Laboratory at Johns Hopkins and one of the foremost pathologist and
medical bacteriologist in this country. These subjects had not been
previously taught as part of the medical curriculum. It was during
this period, that the mature scientific investigator began to be
formed. He conducted his own individual research much to the delight
and satisfaction of Dr. Welch who had been one of Pasteur's students.
His ties with Dr. Welch were strengthened, and Dr. Welch's mutually
admiring relationship with Sternberg was quite advantageous to Walter Reed.
|
|
|
A Final Western Tour of Duty
|
|
From 1891 to 1893 Walter Reed spent his last western tour at Ft. Snelling,
Minnesota. A man of sterling character, religious by nature, prepared for
practice and research, a soldier who had learned to endure hardships, a
student and pathologist of the highest caliber, Walter Reed was now ready
for the great achievements of his lifetime. He would live for only fifty-one
years, but between 1893 and 1901, a year before his death, he was engaged
in some of the most important work in the history of medicine. This took
the form of research into the etiology (cause) and epidemiology (spread)
of typhoid and yellow fever.
|
|
|
Reed Is Assigned to Army Medical School, Moves to Washington, D.C.
|
|
In 1893 Reed was promoted to major and brought to Washington, D.C. by the
new Surgeon General, George Miller Sternberg. He took his post as Curator
of the Army Medical Museum (now the National Museum of Health and Medicine,
part of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology) and professor of clinical
microscopy in the Army Medical School (now the Walter Reed Army Institute
of Research) opened in Washington that year by General Sternberg. He later
took on additional duties as professor of bacteriology at the Columbian
University (now the George Washington University). He worked industriously
for five years, teaching and working in his specialty, bacteriology.
His work, clinical and academic, was accurate and original. His long
experience as a military doctor in the field gave him an excellent sense
of judgment, valuable for investigating the causes of epidemic diseases
and in making sanitary inspections at military posts. He was indeed
needed as an instructor; medicine was making rapid advances and military
doctors had to be informed of the new techniques. An anti-toxin for diphtheria
had been prepared and there was a race to find the specific agents responsible
for communicable diseases. This was the beginning of truly an era of great
discovery. But the work of Koch and Pasteur were not well enough known; Major
Reed, as a professor at the Army Medical School, served in a vital capacity
teaching the new science of bacteriology.
|
|
|
Reed Begins His Search For a Cure
|
|
The rush of volunteers at the beginning of the Spanish American War in
early 1898 presented special problems for the Army Medical Department.
These volunteers were sent to various training camps mostly in the east
and south. In these crowded camps typhoid became a terrible killer. In
fact many more young soldiers died of disease, mostly typhoid, than were
killed by the enemy in Cuba. It became a national disgrace. Surgeon
General Sternberg appointed a board of officers headed by Major Reed
to investigate this terrible problem of typhoid fever. The Typhoid Board
performed its greatest service through the discovery that this deadly
disease, prevalent at almost all U.S. Army encampments, was spread most
commonly and disastrously by contact between persons and flies soiled
with human excrement containing typhoid bacilli, by human carriers who
shed bacilli by the billions, and by impure drinking water. This triumph
for Army medicine demonstrated for the first time the effects of intestinal
disease-producing agents. It also pointed out the failure of out-dated
diagnostic techniques. In some camps there were not even microscopes
available for diagnostic purposes. The report of these findings passed
with little notice, but it proved beyond all doubt that proper diagnosis
required microscopic investigations and, in some cases, autopsies. Further,
it served to dispel old notions that such diseases were caused by miasmas
or foul emanations from swamps and rivers.
|
|
|
The Challenge of Yellow Fever
|
|
Diseases, including yellow fever, killed more men in the Spanish-American
War than did the enemy. Yellow fever may have first appeared in Central
America in 1596, probably imported from Africa by slave ships. It may
have been the disease from which members of Columbus' second expedition
suffered in 1495. Ninety epidemics struck the United States between 1596
and 1900. In 1793 an epidemic first hit Philadelphia, then the U.S.
capital, causing the Government to flee as ten per cent of the population
perished. Washington went to Mount Vernon while Jefferson fled the disorder
caused by the onslaught of the disease. Because of frequent epidemics,
which destroyed ninety per cent of his expeditionary forces in 1802,
Napoleon was influenced to sell the Louisiana Territory. It was chiefly
because of malaria and "yellow jack," as the disease was nicknamed from
the pennant which was flown during quarantine, that the French were unable
to complete the Panama Canal. The danger of contaminating the southern
states was considered to be a major factor in the annexation of Cuba.
|
|
The onset of yellow fever came with chills and a headache. Then followed
severe pains in the back, arms and legs accompanied by high fever and
vomiting. The feverish stage might last hours, days, or weeks. Jaundice,
from which the fever derives its name, might then appear. Then came the
so-called "stage of calm" when the severity of the symptoms subsided
and the fever dropped. In less serious cases this stage indicated recovery.
But in the main, this stage was followed by a return of the fever
accompanied by internal bleeding which caused the dreaded "black vomit"
when blood released into the stomach was ejected. Reed and Carroll had
estimated that there were 300,000 cases in the United States between 1793
and 1900, which cost the nation almost $500,000,000 with a mortality rate
usually at forty per cent but sometimes as high as eighty five per cent.
The scourge of yellow fever had plagued the southeastern United States for
almost two hundred years, but nowhere was it more prevalent than in Havana.
|
|
Following the end of the Spanish-American War, yellow fever loomed as a
significant problem for the U.S. Army during its planned four year
occupation of Cuba. In 1899, Reed and his assistant James Carroll
published a paper refuting the claim of the respected Italian scientist
Guiseppe Sanarelli that a bacterium he had discovered was the agent of
yellow fever. Surgeon General Sternberg, the country's leading expert on
yellow fever, agreed with them completely. In the late spring of 1900,
as the yellow fever season approached and the sanitary measures taken to
protect the forces in Cuba were clearly less than adequate, Sternberg
appointed a group of Army physicians to study the issue in Cuba.
|
|
|
Reed Appointed to Head Study of Yellow Fever
|
|
In May 1900 Major Reed was appointed president of this board "to study
infectious diseases in Cuba paying particular attention to yellow fever."
The other members of the board were Reed's friend Acting Assistant Surgeon
James Carroll, and Acting Assistant Surgeons Jesse W. Lazear and Aristides
Agramonte of Havana. Major Reed organized the Board in the following
manner: he was in charge of the entire project; Dr. James Carroll was in
charge of bacteriology; Dr. Jesse W. Lazear was to do laboratory work
but fairly quickly took charge of the experimental mosquitoes; and Dr.
Aristides Agramonte was in charge of pathology. As a result of the
extraordinary work of this Yellow Fever Commission, very few people
living today have any knowledge of this dread disease.
|
|
|
Disease Studies Begin
|
|
On June 25, 1900 Walter Reed arrived at Columbia Barracks in Quemados
about six miles from Havana. Major Reed visited the hospital where his
friend Major Jefferson R. Kean, Chief Surgeon of the Department of
Western Cuba, was ill with yellow fever. It was the first active case
Reed had ever seen, fortunately Kean recovered. Despite the fact that Reed
and Carroll had published results contrary to it, the Commission members
set out to see if they could validate Sanarelli's theory. By August, 1900,
however, they had found no causal relationship between Bacillus icteroides
and yellow fever. Bacillus icteroides was actually a member of the hog-cholera group.
|
|
The Commission then decided that the best way to approach yellow fever was
not by searching for a specific agent but rather by identifying the means by
which the fever was transmitted. They turned their attention to the theory
of Dr. Carlos Juan Finlay and examined it more carefully. For nineteen
years this resident of Havana had contended that yellow fever was carried
in the body of a common house mosquito which at that time was called Culex
fasciatus, later Stegomyia fasciata, and is now known as Aedes aegypti.
This theory had been expounded even earlier, but it was Finlay who was its
staunchest exponent. However, after some 100 experimental innoculations had
failed to produce any clear cases of the disease under strict laboratory
control, Finlay was scoffed at; people referred to him as the "mosquito man."
There was evidence, however, that tended to lend credence to this theory,
which even the Yellow Fever Commission, optimistic though it was, had
doubted. First of all, the disease skipped erratically from house to house,
jumping around corners. One member of a household might contract the disease
while others in close contact never became ill or did so after a period of
about two weeks had elapsed. This was quite unlike any other infectious
disease except malaria, which had just recently been shown by Major Ronald
Ross of the British Army to be spread by the Anopheles mosquito.
|
|
|
Reed Returns to Washington
|
|
Although Major Reed was called back to Washington to finish the Typhoid
Commission report following the unexpected death of one of its members,
the work of the Yellow Fever Commission went forward. Dr. Lazear had
recently been working with malarial mosquitoes and attacked his duties
with great enthusiasm in view of the information he had concerning the
observations of Dr. Henry R. Carter of the Marine Hospital Service (now
the Public Health Service). Dr. Carter, who was assigned in Cuba at the
time, had observed that it took two or three weeks for the first case
of yellow fever to produce the next case in a community. On the basis
of this observation, he suspected that an insect might be the intermediary
since this would account for the delay in transmission. He called this
the "extrinsic incubation period."
|
|
Dr. Finlay had given some of the black, cigar-shaped eggs to the Commission,
and Lazear allowed them to hatch. In the warm summer months, it was not
difficult to maintain a supply since the mosquitoes bred in any clean,
still water. Several members of the research team (including Drs. Carroll
and Lazear) then volunteered to be bitten but initially without producing
illness. Later Carroll was bitten again and promptly developed a successful
case of yellow fever but his case was experimentally defective since there
may have been other sources of contamination. Despite a very severe case,
Carroll fortunately recovered and went on with his work in bacteriology.
Next, Lazear asked Private William Dean of Ohio if he would consent to be
bitten. Answering that he wasn't "afraid of any little old gnat" Dean
permitted the female Aedes aegypti to dine on him. He developed the first
unquestionable experimental case. Dean survived.
|
|
|
Dr. Lazear Dies, Reed Rejoins the Study
|
|
Dr. Lazear himself came down with yellow fever and tragically died after
several days of delirium and black vomit - a true martyr to science. The
exact details of how he acquired his illness will probably never be known,
as he had several possible exposures, including possibly from self-experimentation.
|
|
With the Typhoid Report completed and word of Lazear's death, Major Reed
quickly returned to Cuba. Although grieved at Lazear's death, he was
excited at the prospect of successfully tracking down the secret of the fever.
Dr. Lazear's notebook, found by Lieutenant Albert E. Truby, yielded the key.
In it, through the carefully recorded controlled experiments, Walter Reed
found that in order for a mosquito to become infected, it had to bite a
yellow fever patient during the first three days of his illness; only during
that time was the agent present in the bloodstream. Further, it required at
least twelve days for the agent to incubate in the female mosquito (only the
female aegypti draws blood) before the fever could be passed to another person.
|
|
|
Progress Announced
|
|
In October 1900, Major Reed was able to announce to the annual meeting of the
American Public Health Association that "the mosquito serves as the intermediate
host for the parasite of yellow fever." These two cases, although sufficient to
convince the Yellow Fever Commission that they were at last experiencing some
success, were not enough for the thorough scientific mind of Walter Reed, nor
would they be for a public that the press had instructed in the "foolishness"
of the mosquito theory. With the express permission and financial support of
General Leonard Wood, Governor General of Cuba, Camp Lazear, named for their
fallen comrade, became operational on November 20, 1900.
|
|
|
Human Volunteers Begin Participation in Yellow Fever Study
|
|
Dr. Carroll had exhausted the list of experimental animals, rats and the like
normally used for scientific research, failing to find any susceptible to
yellow fever. Human volunteers would be needed. General Wood also authorized
the Commission to use and pay American and Spanish volunteers to participate
in the experiments.
|
|
|
Reed Proves Method of Transmission
|
|
In addition to the mosquito theory, Dr. Reed also desired to disprove the
seemingly fallacious belief that yellow fever could be transmitted and
induced from clothing and bedding soiled by the body fluids and excrement
of yellow fever sufferers. These articles were known as fomites and were
commonly thought to carry the disease. Just as "everybody knew" that the
mosquito theory was foolish, so "everybody knew" that fomites were dangerous.
|
|
In November, 1900, Camp Lazear was established one mile from Quemados
and placed under strict quarantine. At this experimental station Private
John R. Kissinger permitted himself to be bitten and developed the first
case of controlled experimental yellow fever. This case have been deemed
as important to medical science as Robert Koch's discovery of the tubercle
bacillus and the development of the diphtheria anti-toxin. Kissinger and
John J. Moran (who was bitten but did not develop yellow fever) had
volunteered on condition that they would receive no gratuities,
performing their service "solely in the interest of science and the
cause of humanity." In a truly unprecedented step, the Commission got
informed consent from its research subjects, having them sign a consent
form that was written in English and Spanish. This almost unrecognized
contribution of the Commission was a landmark event in the evolution of
ethical human experimentation.
|
|
Then, in order to prove the theory for all time and to destroy the fomite myth,
two specially constructed buildings were erected in Camp Lazear. Building
Number One, or the "Infected Clothing Building," was composed of one room,
14 x 20 feet heated by a stove to ninety-five degrees. For twenty nights Dr.
Robert P. Cooke and Privates Folk and Jernegan hung offensive clothing and
bedding around the walls. They slept on sheets and pillows befouled by the
blood and vomit of yellow fever victims. Not one of the volunteers contracted
the disease. On December 19, 1900, they were relieved by Privates Hanberry and
England who, in turn, were finally relieved by Privates Hildebrand and Andrus.
From November 30, 1900 to January 31, 1901 the experiment ran to completion,
disproving the fomite theory of transmission and thereby demonstrating the
uselessness of destroying the personal effects of yellow fever victims, thus
saving thousands of dollars in property.
|
|
The second building was similarly constructed and was called the "Infected Mosquito
Building." It was divided into two parts separated by a screen with screens on
the windows as well. John J. Moran, a clerk in General Fitzhugh Lee's office,
volunteered again and was bitten by fifteen infected mosquitoes, developed
the fever and recovered. The other volunteers, who were separated and thereby
protected by the screen, escaped infection.
|
|
In February, 1901 Walter Reed presented their results to the Pan-American Medical
Congress in Havana. The results were readily accepted in Havana but on his return
to the United States there was not universal acceptance. Despite the acclaim he
received, he remained modest and reserved. His constant hope of doing something
to relieve the suffering of mankind had been fulfilled; his dedication to duty,
sound judgment, and thorough scientific methods was an inspiration to the
generations of medical researchers.
|
|
|
Dr. Carroll Finds the Final Key to Yellow Fever
|
|
In the late summer of 1901, Dr. Carroll returned to Cuba and through further
experiments proved that the specific agent of yellow fever was sub-microscopic
and too small to be caught in the pores of the diatomaceous filter that
retained bacteria. Thus the last key to the disease was found. Carroll had
proved through a series of injections of filtered blood that a filterable
agent (a virus) could cause disease in man.
|
|
Yellow fever was produced in twenty-two American and Spanish volunteers
either by direct mosquito bites or by injections of infected blood or
filtered blood. These injections proved that the specific agent of yellow
fever is in the blood and that passage through the body of a mosquito is
not necessary to its development. Neither the brilliance of their
thoroughness nor the genius of their experimental design could have
bequeathed the Commission the extraordinary luck they had, for not a
single one of their volunteers had died.
|
|
|
Yellow Fever Volunteers Honored
|
|
The courage of the volunteers is inestimable. A unique honor helps keep
alive the memory of the gallant men who participated in these experiment.
In 1929 Congress awarded a special gold medal to each man or his next of
kin. In addition, their names are recorded in the Army Roll of Honor.
|
|
|
Yellow Fever Eradication Strategy Implemented
|
|
Had it not been for Major Reed's fair and thoroughly scientific approach
to the problem and misconceptions concerning the disease, especially the
whole contagion theory, yellow fever might have continued for years. As a
result of the Yellow Fever Commission's success, Major William Crawford
Gorgas, then Chief Sanitary Officer for the Department of Cuba, rid the
island of this longtime pestilence. Realizing that the mosquitoes never
stray far from human dwelling places in order to get their meals of blood
necessary for them to lay their eggs, Major Gorgas organized inspection
parties to check all homes in Havana for possible breeding places, insuring
that the only standing water in the homes was needed for family use and
properly screened. All other water receptacles were to be emptied. Yellow
fever which had ravaged Havana for 150 years was essentially eradicated in
150 days. The whole world was astounded by the results.
|
|
As the mosquito clean-up campaign was starting, Major Gorgas was not
convinced that it was going to be successful in controlling yellow
fever. While he believed the validity of the commission's experiments,
he felt that the disease was also transmitted by other means and that
killing all the mosquitoes, if that was even possible, was not all
that would be needed.
|
|
|
The Search For a Vaccine
|
|
Gorgas and a Cuban yellow fever expert, Dr. Juan Guitéras, wanted to
see if intentionally causing a mild case of yellow fever could be used
as a way to "vaccinate" against the disease. They had been impressed
that almost all yellow fever cases produced by the commission had been
relatively mild. A separate Inoculation Station was established at the
Las Animas Hospital outside Havana and Drs. Gorgas and Guitéras
successfully produced a case of yellow fever by the bite of a loaded
mosquito in February 1901. It was a mild case and the patient survived.
During the next six months all subsequent attempts to produce cases were
unsuccessful. In August 1901, they succeeded in infecting eight out of
sixteen volunteers. Tragically, three of these eight cases turned out to be fatal.
|
|
The only American among the Gorgas and Guitéras volunteers was a 25 year old
nurse from New Jersey, Clara Maass. She had volunteered during the Spanish
American War in 1898 and had served at stateside camps and in Cuba. She
worked as a contract nurse as there were no nurses on active duty at that
time. Later she volunteered again and served in the Philippines but returned
home because of illness. After she recovered, she wrote Major Gorgas and
ask if he need her help. Following his positive response, she returned to
Cuba to work in the Las Animas Hospital. She volunteered for the Gorgas
and Guitéras mosquito experiments and was bitten numerous times during
March, May, and June without results. She was bitten one last time on
August 14, 1901. She became ill on the 18th and despite the best care
possible, died on the 24th. Her death and the two others sent shock waves
through the Army that reverberated all the way back to Washington and
eventually lead to the cessation of human experimentation.
|
|
|
Yellow Fever, Malaria Controlled in Canal Zone
|
|
Several years later, now Colonel Gorgas applied the same techniques in the
Canal Zone, controlling yellow fever and malaria, permitting the United
States to complete the Panama Canal so vital for commerce and deployment
of the Pacific fleet. Thus the menace which had struck in the southern
United States and Caribbean every year since 1648 was for all practical
purposes eradicated.
|
|
|
Yellow Fever Vaccine Developed
|
|
The Commission's discoveries were confirmed by the Board of Health of
Havana and later a commission of the Pasteur Institute confirmed the
agent's filterability. In 1927 it was found that certain species of
monkeys were susceptible to the virus, thereby eliminating the need
for human subjects. In 1937 a vaccine against yellow fever, called
17-D, was produced by scientists of the International Health Division
of the Rockefeller Foundation. The use of this vaccine became routine
in the United States Army in 1942. Since yellow fever is still endemic
in the jungles of Central America and Africa where anti-mosquito
measures are almost impossible, the fever still exists. A distinction
is therefore made between "urban" yellow fever which is under control
and the jungle variety which persists. As yet there is no cure for the
disease, only inoculation against it.
|
|
|
Reed Resumes Post at Army Medical School
|
|
After his return to the United States in February 1901, Dr. Reed resumed
his position as professor of bacteriology in the Army Medical School, and
as professor of pathology and bacteriology at the Columbian (George Washington)
University Medical School. In the summer of 1902 he was awarded two honorary
degrees: a Master of Arts from Harvard University and a Doctor of Laws degree
from the University of Michigan. He was appointed librarian of the Surgeon
General's Library on November 1, 1902.
|
|
|
Walter Reed Dies
|
|
Reed's health had appeared in decline for some time, following an
appendectomy, he died of peritonitis on November 23, 1902. He was
buried in Arlington National Cemetery. On his simple monument is
inscribed the following epitaph, taken from the remarks of President
Eliot when Harvard University conferred the Master of Arts degree: "He gave
to man control over that dreadful scourge, yellow fever."
|
|
|
Dr. Walter Reed's Legacy
|
|
Today a great hospital and medical center stand in constant tribute
to Walter Reed. Due to the untiring efforts of Major William Cline Borden
who was the initiator, planner and effective mover for the creation,
location, and first Congressional support of the Medical Center, it is
still referred to today as "Borden's Dream." Walter Reed General Hospital,
as it was then known, opened its doors on May 1, 1909 to ten patients.
Fourteen years later, General John J. Pershing signed the War Department
Order creating the Army Medical Center. In September 1951 on the one
hundredth anniversary of Walter Reed's birth, the entire complex became
known as Walter Reed Army Medical Center, in further tribute to this
hero of medical science. In 1945 he was elected to the Hall of Fame of Great
Americans at New York University, the first physician to be so honored.
On November 21, 1966, a memorial and bronze bust of Major Reed were
unveiled by President Eisenhower on the grounds of Walter Reed Army
Medical Center. The bust and memorial were donated by the Walter Reed
Memorial Association, an organization which, since its inception in 1903,
had resolved to erect a memorial in Washington to perpetuate his memory.
|
|
|
Bibliography
|
|
Altman, Lawrence K.: Who Goes first? - The Story of Self-Experimentation in
Medicine, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1986.
|
|
Bean WB: Walter Reed: He gave to man control of the dreadful
scourge yellow fever. Archives of Internal Medicine 89: 171-187, 1952.
|
|
Bean WB: Walter Reed, a biographical sketch. Archives of Internal Medicine 134: 871-877, 1974.
|
|
Bean WB: Walter Reed and the Ordeal of Human Experiments. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 51: 75-92, 1977.
|
|
Bean WB: Walter Reed - A Biography, The University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1982.
|
|
Bean WB: Walter Reed and yellow fever. Journal of the American Medical Association 250:659-662, 1983.
|
|
De Kruif, Paul: Microbe Hunters, Harcourt Brace and Co. San Diego, 1926.
|
|
Kelly, Howard A.: Walter Reed and Yellow Fever, McClure, Phillips and Co. New York, 1906.
|
|
Lederer, Susan E.: Subjected to Science - Human Experimentation in America Before the Second World War, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1995.
|
|
Reed W, Carroll J, Agramonte A, and Lazear J: The Etiology of Yellow Fever: A Preliminary Note. The Philadelphia Medical Journal 6: 790-793, 1900.
|
|
Reed W, Carroll J, Agramonte A: The Etiology of Yellow Fever - An Additional Note. JAMA 36:431-440, 1901.
|
|
Reed W, Carroll J, Agramonte A: Experimental Yellow Fever. American Medicine 2: 15-23, 1901.
|
|
Reed W, Carroll J: "The Etiology of Yellow Fever - A Supplemental Note" American Medicine 3: 301-305, 1902.
|
|
Senate Document No. 822, Yellow Fever - A Compilation of Various Publications, 61st Congress, 1911.
|
|
Truby, Albert E.: Memoir of Walter Reed - The Yellow Fever Episode, Paul B. Hoeber, Inc. New York, 1943.
|
|
|
All comments and questions about content at this site should be sent to the Webmaster
|
|
|
|
Also Read:
|
|
|
|
|